The skeletal system is our body's framework. Without it we would be a blob of skin, organs, blood vessels, muscles and nerves that would collide with each other and kill us. Many think that bone is just white stuff that keeps our shape normal. However, bones are much more complex than we think they are.
Bones are actually living organisms that have their own lives. They only aid us because it is their nature. We all take them for granted.Every second our body gets rid of old bone cells (resorption) and creates new ones (formation). 
The white bone on the outside of bones is called compact bone (hard bone). Compact bone is made of thousands of tiny rod shaped parts called osteons, which are tightly packed together. Each is thinner than human hair and they are made of layers of hard mineral crystals. Crystals are mainly calcium, phosphate, and carbonate, which are scattered among bundles of threadlike fibers of collagen. Under the compact bone, there is cancellous bone (spongy bone).
It has thousands of tiny holes in it and gives bones their flexibility. In most bones, under the cancellous bone, there is red or yellow jelly-like bone marrow. Red marrow is one of the body's biggest blood cell factories and recycle centers for it creates 2 million red blood cells and tens of thousands of white blood cells every second. Marrow also gets rid of old cells and creates platelets. Yellow marrow stores fat and releases it when needed. 
Muscles are attached to bones with ligaments and tendons, which are flexors. Muscles move bones; they have no power to move on their own.Bone connectors that allow bones to move in different direction are called joints. The categories that joints are divided into are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial. Fibrous joints are immovable. Fibrous joints are further down classified into three sub-categories which are sutures, syndemoses and gomphoses. Sutures hold together bones in places such as the cranium (skull). 
Syndemoses hold together the radius and ulna and the tibia and fibula. Gomphoses connect teeth and the sockets in the gums. Cartilaginous joints connect to bones with cartilage such as the disks between the vertebrae and joints that connect the sternum and the ribs. Synovial joints are the most movable of all three categories and are divided into sub-categories just like the fibrous joints. The types of synovial joints are hinge, pivot, gliding, ball and socket, and saddle joints.
Hinge joints such as the elbow or knee can move in one direction like a door. Pivot joints such as the spine or at the neck can twist. Gliding joints such as the ankle or wrist can twist and move up and down. Ball and socket joints such as the shoulder or the hip can move in a hemisphere. Saddle joints such as the base of fingers and toes can move in four different directions. 
The skull protects the brain, the eyes and other sense organs. It consists of twenty nine bones. The bones are linked with sutures. Eight bones make up the cranium. Fourteen are facial bones such as upper jaw, lower jaw, the cheeks, and the nose. Two bones form the upper jaw which is called the maxilla. The mandible or lower jaw can move in all directions but up. They form a crusher together.
The shoulder is biggest joint apart from the knee. It is a synovial ball and socket joint. Though it is one of the most easily dislocated joints, it is very powerful. It connects the humerus (upper arm) with the clavicle (collar bone) and the scapula.
The sternum is what you may know as the breastbone. It is made of two parts, the manubrium and the sternal body. It is connected to the clavicles and the rib cage. 
The rib cage is made of twenty four bones and twelve ribs. It protects organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas, spleen, stomach, intestines, many major arteries, and much more. The first seven ribs are connected to the sternum at the front of the chest with a cartilaginous joint. The next three ribs are connected to the ones above. The last two, called floating ribs are connected to vertebrae. 
Spine is a column of thirty three bones called vertebrae separated by joints called vertebral disks. The spine protects the delicate spinal cord which runs through the hollows in disks. Slipped disks can push on a nerve and cause pain. From the side, the spine looks like an S. It allows us to bend and walk and stand upright.The first and second vertebrae which are found in the neck are called the atlas and the axis. The first seven vertebrae are called cervical vertebrae. The next twelve vertebrae are called thoracic vertebrae. The last 5 are called lumbar vertebrae. 
Humans are the only creatures that have thumbs. Thumbs are very useful in that they allow the user to grip objects by wrapping the thumb and any other finger around an objects.The hand has twenty seven bones which are divided into three groups. The bones in the first group are the phalanges in fingers and the thumb.
The bones in the second group are the carpals in the wrist, and the bones in the last group are the metacarpals in the palm. There are fourteen finger bones, three in each finger, and two in each thumb. There are eight bones in the wrist and there are five bones in the palm.
One of the most common illnesses of the skeletal system is arthritis. There are over 100 different conditions of arthritis. In a case of arthritis, a joint is inflamed. Osteoarthritis occurs when cartilage gets worn out in joints. Rheumatoid arthritis is pain and stiffness in joints. 
Another very common ailment of the bones is a fracture. A fracture is a break in a bone. There are different types of fractures. A compound fracture transpires when a bone shatters or goes through skin. A simple fracture takes place when the bone doesn't go through skin. Fractures usually heal by themselves. Bones are covered by a thin protective layer called periosteum. Blood vessels that run through the periosteum send out blood that will clot and heal broken bones.
Function
The function of the respiratory system is to transport air into the lungs and to facilitate the diffusion of Oxygen into the blood stream. Its also receives waste Carbon Dioxide from the blood and exhales it.
The respiratory system consists of the following structures, divided into the upper and lower respiratory tracts:
Upper Respiratory Tract
• Mouth, nose & nasal cavity: The function of this part of the system is to warm, filter and moisten the incoming air
• Pharynx: Here the throat divides into the trachea (wind pipe) and oesophagus (food pipe). There is also a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis which prevents food from entering the trachea
• Larynx: This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is generated. It also helps protect the trachea by producing a strong cough reflex if any solid objects pass the epiglottis.
Lower Respiratory Tract 
• Trachea: Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries air from the throat into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25mm in diameter and 10-16cm in length. The inner membrane of the trachea is covered in tiny hairs called cilia, which catch particles of dust which we can then remove through coughing. The trachea is surrounded by 15-20 C-shaped rings of cartilage at the front and side which help protect the trachea and keep it open. They are not complete circles due to the position of the oesophagus immediately behind the trachea and the need for the trachea to partially collapse to allow the expansion of the oesophagus when swallowing large pieces of food.
• Bronchi: The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one entering the left and one entering the right lung. The left bronchi is narrower, longer and more horizontal than the right. Irregular rings of cartilage surround the bronchi, whose walls also consist of smooth muscle. Once inside the lung the bronchi split several ways, forming tertiary bronchi.
• Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very narrow tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no cartilage within the bronchioles and they lead to alveolar sacs.
• Alveoli: Individual hollow cavities contained within alveolar sacs (or ducts). Alveoli have very thin walls which permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. They are surrounded by a network of capillaries, into which the inspired gases pass. There are approximately 3 million alveoli within an average adult lung.
• Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle which sits underneath the lungs, attaching to the lower ribs, sternum and lumbar spine and forming the base of the thoracic cavity.
White blood cells, or leukocytes, are cells in human blood (and also in the lymphatic system, spleen, and other tissues) that are produced in bone marrow and are critical to the proper function of the immune system. A healthy human has between 7000 and 25,000 white blood cells per drop of blood; a human with leukemia has up to 50,000 white blood cells per drop. 
There are several types of white blood cells, but the most common are neutrophil granulocytes, eosinophil granulocytes, basophil granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and granulocytes. All granulocytes engulf invaders of different sorts and digest them. Neutrophils attack bacteria, basophils release histamine (thus being complicit in allergies), and eosinophils attack parasites. Lymphocytes include killer T cells, and are found primarily in the lymphatic system; these and other lymphocytes destroy infected human cells. Monocytes enable T cells to recognize their viral targets; these cells are critical in developing immunities. When monocytes are found in human tissue, they are called macrophages.
A number of diseases can strike white blood cells, the most outstanding of which is leukemia. Leukopenia is the opposite, in which there is a deficit of white blood cells.
The most common type of blood cell is the red blood cell. These cells are used by all vertebrates as the primary method of delivering oxygen from either lungs or gills to the rest of the body. They are commonly called erythrocytes or RBCs to set them apart from other blood cells like leukocytes (white blood cells).
Most of a red blood cell is hemoglobin, a complex iron-based molecule. Heme groups in hemoglobin contain the iron, which links to oxygen to transport it throughout the body; they also carry some of waste carbon dioxide back to the lungs. About 2% of all oxygen and almost all carbon dioxide are dissolved in blood plasma, and myoglobin in muscle cells (related to hemoglobin) stores oxygen there as well. Hemoglobin’s iron is the reason erythrocytes are red. When depleted of oxygen, the hemoglobin takes on a bluish hue.
Red blood cells in mammals do not have a cell nucleus, and therefore do not have DNA; they also do not have other organelles like mitochondria, and produce energy through glycolysis of glucose – a fermentation process – followed by lactic acid production. Their glucose uptake is not regulated by insulin. They are shaped like disks with indentations on top and bottom, optimizing them for exchanging oxygen by maximizing surface area. They are also flexible, allowing them to fit into the tinest capillaries. Adult humans have 2-3 x 1013 red blood cells at any given time, with men and people living in high altitudes having more. Blood types are differentiated by different surface glycoproteins.
The brain is the fundamental core of the nervous system and is by far the most intricate, complicated and powerful part of the human body. It is responsible for both the lower order functions (such as digesting and breathing) and the higher order functions (such as thinking and inventing). It is at the root of most characteristics that set us apart from simpler forms of animals (language, rationality, mathematics, etc.).
On average, the adult human brain weighs around three pounds and is responsible for the consumption of up to twenty percent of an adult’s total energy (in newborns it consumes as much as sixty percent!) Mankind’s interest in unlocking the mysteries of the brain could be seen even thousands of years ago when Herophilus, the first known anatomist, posited that the brain was the seat of intelligence (Aristotle, on the other hand, posited that the brain’s function was to cool blood). But for however long it has been studied, the brain has only truly begun to be understood in recent years, thanks to advancing technologies and research techniques. One interesting piece of information to emerge is that, contrary to the commonly held belief, humans do use their entire brains and not the ten percent that had previously been suggested. All sectors of the brain perform some function, and many of them will be performed in parallel.
Parts of the Brain
The human brain is an extremely complex organ composed of interdependent parts with each having its own specific functions and properties. However, all of these individual parts can be grouped into three fundamental segments: the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain.
The hindbrain is the part located at the upper section of the spinal cord. It includes the brain stem and the cerebellum. The hindbrain is responsible for monitoring the vital functions of a body, like its heart rate and respiration. The hindbrain (by means of the cerebellum) is the coordinator of motion and is also responsible for muscle memory as seen in the seemingly reflex manner in which a pro golfer swings a club or an encoder types without looking at the keyboard.
The midbrain is the topmost section of the brain stem. It is associated with some, but not all, reflex actions, as well as with certain voluntary movements. The midbrain, for example, is part of the reason why an eye is able to move.
The forebrain is made up of the cerebrum, the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the basal ganglia and the hippocampus. It is the most advanced and the largest section of the brain, located in its uppermost part. It is from the forebrain that the “higher order” activities such as reasoning, remembering and thinking are derived.
Lobes of the Brain
Just as the different parts of the brain can be categorized according to their location (the forebrain, the midbrain and the hindbrain), so too can the brain be examined based on its lobes. The human brain is divided into two hemispheres, and within each of these hemispheres are found four lobes or sections: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe and the temporal lobe. These lobes perform their own specific functions.
The frontal lobes of each hemisphere are located just behind the forehead. Among other things, they are partially responsible for language, motor function, judgment, problem solving, impulse control, reasoning, memory and the ability to plan and fulfill plans. Behind the frontal lobes lie the parietal lobes. These lobes are the least understood among the four, but are the principal integrators of sensory information such as taste, pain and temperature. They are also responsible for reading and arithmetic. The occipital lobes lie in the back and are related to visual processing, so much so that injury to an occipital lobe could cause blindness. Lastly, the temporal lobes are found under the parietal lobe and are responsible for memory, hearing, perception and recognition.
The Neuron
The neuron is the fundamental cell that comprises the nervous system of an organism. It is referred to as a nerve cell, and is what allows an organism to monitor its external environment as well as its internal operations. The neuron is also responsible for determining the appropriate response to the data gathered from the outer and inner signals, as well as for controlling the body as demanded by the chosen response.
In the human brain there are around 100 billion neurons, each containing pieces of information that need to be transmitted from one neuron to another in order for the body to function properly. It is through this transmission of information that neurons communicate with each other. Communication between neurons is vital, since without it no degree of information contained in any one neuron would be worth anything. This communication is made possible by the synapses that are located in between neurons and that act as connectors when fueled by special chemicals known as neurotransmitters.
Although there are a number of specialized neuron types, certain components are universally present. All neurons have dendrites, the receptors of information from other neurons. All have somas, containers of nuclei and the organelles required for proper function. Also, all have axons, transmitters of information to other neurons.
Neurons are often categorized by their functional role in the nervious system. Sensory neurons transmit information from the sensory organs to the brain. Motor neurons transmit information from the brain to muscles, directing muscle movement. Visceral neurons connect internal organs to the central nervous system. Somatic neurons connect skin and muscle to the central nervous system.
Brain Imaging
The practice of brain imaging is improving steadily thanks to the rapidly advancing technologies available to today’s neuroscientists and to the field of medicine in general. Brain imaging allows for a glimpse into the internal functions, properties and capacities of the living brain, all of which could only be assumed or hypothesized until the last few decades.
One benefit provided by brain imaging is the greater understanding of specific brain areas, of how these areas interact and of how they operate. Another advantage is the capacity to determine which areas are adversely influenced by brain disorders, thus providing doctors with the relevant information needed to properly and effectively treat the disorders. 
There are a number of methods that fall under the category of brain imaging. Some examples include Computed Axial Tomography (known as a CAT scan, which shows structure but not function), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (known as an MRI, which provides a detailed view of different angles of the brain), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (known as a functional MRI, which shows both anatomy and function), and Positron Emission Tomography (known as a PET, which shows brain activity).
Chemicals in the Brain
Most chemicals found in the brain are neurotransmitters, chemicals used to relay, amplify, and modulate the electrical signals passed between neurons and other cells.
The neurotransmitters found in the brain consist primarily of small-molecule transmitters (a class of about ten molecules), and more than fifty neuroactive peptides or proteins. Some fatty acids may also be neurotransmitters, as are several single ions like synaptically-released zinc.
Though the chemicals in the brain vary, their effect is determined by the receptor they go to, not by the chemicals themselves.
The small-molecule neurotransmitter molecules are generally packaged in vesicles, and their release is triggered by synaptic depolarization which causes calcium ion channels to open and release the neurotransmitter; the whole process is called exocytosis. Neurotransmitters released in this way diffuse across the synaptic divide to bind to receptors. Peptides are synthesized in the neuron's soma and transmitted through the axon to the synaptic divide; otherwise, the mechanism of release is similar.
Neurotransmitters are often removed from the synaptic divide by a process called reuptake or uptake; this clears the channel so that the neuron is no longer stimulated or inhibited. With acetylcholine and some other neurotransmitters, the mechanism is digestion by an enzyme instead, or dissolution by proteases. Most neuroactive drugs take advantage of these removal mechanisms to affect the brain.
A list of common neurotransmitters:
Derived from amino acids
aspartate
glutamate (Glu)
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
glycine (Gly)
Biogenic amines
acetylcholine (Ach)
Monoamines (in order of synthesis)
-from phenylalanine and tyrosine:
dopamine (DA)
norepinephrine or noradrenaline (NE)
epinephrine or adrenaline (Epi)
-from tryptophan:
serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5HT)
melatonin (Mel)
-from histidine:
histamine (H)
Polypeptides (or neuropeptides)
bombesin
gastrin releasing peptide (GRP)
Gastrins
gastrin
cholecystokinin (CCK)
Neurohypophyseals
vasopressin
oxytocin
neurophysin I
neurophysin II
Neuropeptide Y
neuropeptide Y (NY)
pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
peptide YY (PYY)
Opioids
corticotropin (adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH)
Beta-lipotropin
dynorphin
endorphin
enkephaline
leumorphin
Secretins
secretin
motilin
glucagon
vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF)
Somatostatins
somatostatin
Tachykinins
neurokinin A
neurokinin B
neuropeptide A
neuropeptide gamma
substance P
Other neurotransmitters
nitric oxide (NO) no receptor
carbon monoxide (CO)
anandamide
Besides neurotransmitting chemicals, many other chemicals found in the brain function as precursors or building blocks to neurotransmitters. Additionally, the cerebrospinal fluid of the brain which provides protection, nutrition and buoyancy to the brain is a clear fluid that contains traces of glucose and various proteins. And of course, the brain's neuron and glial cells have unique cellular and chemical structures as well.
The stages of normal human birth
Latent phase
The latent phase of labour may last many days and the contractions are an intensification of the Braxton-Hicks contractions that start around 26 weeks gestation. Cervical effacement occurs during the closing weeks of pregnancy and is usually complete or near complete, by the end of latent phase. Cervical effacement is the thinning and stretching of the cervix. The degree of cervical effacement may be felt during a vaginal examination. A 'long' cervix implies that not much has been taken into the lower segment, and vice versa for a 'short' cervix. Latent phase ends with the onset of active first stage; when the cervix is about 3 cm dilated.
First stage: contractions
The first stage of labor starts classically when the effaced (thinned) cervix is 3 cm dilated. There is variation in this point as some women may have active contractions prior to reaching this point, or they may reach this point without regular contractions. The onset of actual labor is defined when the cervix begins to progressively dilate. Rupture of the membranes, or a blood stained 'show' may or may not occur at around this stage.
Uterine muscles form opposing spirals from the top of the upper segment of the uterus to its junction with the lower segment. During effacement, the cervix becomes incorporated into the lower segment of the uterus. During a contraction, these muscles contract causing shortening of the upper segment and drawing upwards of the lower segment, in a gradual expulsive motion. This draws the cervix up over the baby's head. Full dilatation is reached when the cervix is the size of the baby's head; at around 10 cm dilation for a term baby.
The duration of labour varies widely, but active phase averages some 8 hours for women giving birth to their first child ("primiparae") and 4 hours for women who have already given birth ("multiparae").
Second stage: delivery
This stage begins when the cervix is fully dilated, and ends when the baby is finally delivered. At the beginning of the normal second stage, the head is fully engaged in the pelvis; the widest diameter of the head has successfully passed through the pelvic brim. Ideally it has successfully also passed below the interspinous diameter. This is the narrowest part of the pelvis. If these have been accomplished, all that will remain is for the fetal head to pass below the pubic arch and out through the introitus. This is assisted by the additional maternal efforts of "bearing down". The fetal head is seen to 'crown' as the labia part. At this point the woman may feel a burning or stinging sensation. This is also known as the "ring of fire."
Delivery of the fetal head signals the successful completion of the fourth mechanism of labour (delivery by extension), and is followed by the fifth and sixth mechanisms (restitution and external rotation).
The second stage of labour will vary to some extent, depending on how successfully the preceding tasks have been accomplished.
Third stage: placenta
In this stage, the uterus expels the placenta (afterbirth). The placenta is usually delivered within 15-30 minutes of the baby being born. Maternal blood loss is limited by contraction of the uterus following delivery of the placenta. Normal blood loss is less than 600 mL.
Breastfeeding during and after the third stage, the placenta is visible in the bowl to the right.
The third stage can be managed either expectantly or actively. Expectant management (also known as physiological management) allows the placenta to be expelled without medical assistance. Breastfeeding soon after birth and massaging of the top of the uterus (the fundus) causes uterine contractions that encourage delivery of the placenta. Active management utilizes oxytocic agents and controlled cord traction. The oxytocic agents augment uterine muscular contraction and the cord traction assists with rapid delivery of the placenta.
A Cochrane database study suggests that blood loss and the risk of postpartum bleeding will be reduced in women offered active management of the third stage of labour. However, the use of ergometrine for active management was associated with nausea or vomiting and hypertension, and controlled cord traction requires the immediate clamping of the umbilical cord.
About breastfeeding
The following information about the advantages, disadvantages and alternatives to breastfeeding will help you make up your mind if you haven't decided whether to try it or not.
After the birth, the suckling baby stimulates the release of hormones called prolactin and oxytocin into your bloodstream. Prolactin causes milk to be produced, and oxytocin causes the breasts to secrete the milk ("let-down").
You can breastfeed whatever the size and shape of your breasts and nipples. If you have flat or inverted nipples, nipple massage or breast shells, which help draw out the nipples, can help. Breast size depends on fatty tissue, which is not involved in milk production, so the size of your breasts doesn't make any difference to your ability to breastfeed. Your midwife or health visitor can help you find suitable positions to breastfeed if you have large breasts.
When to start breastfeeding
It's best to have close contact with your baby early on after delivery, with your baby put to your breast as soon as you would like. The baby will naturally root for the nipple and start to suckle when ready. In the first few days, your breasts produce colostrum, a watery yellow fluid that's rich in antibodies, which help to protect the baby against illness.
How to breastfeed
Find a comfortable position where your arms and back and the baby's head are supported. It's important that the baby latches on to your breast correctly and doesn't just take your nipple in his or her mouth, because this can result in sore nipples. Your midwife or health visitor can explain how to check your baby is feeding the right way.
How long does a feed last?
Each baby is different, but as a rough guide each feed may be 10 to 20 minutes per breast or longer.
The quality of milk changes throughout the feed - the first milk (foremilk) quenches thirst and is lower in fat; the next portion (hindmilk) provides more fat and meets the baby's energy needs. It is best to offer the other breast after the baby has finished with the first. Start on alternate breasts from one feed to the next.
How often to feed
Newborn babies need to feed every two to three hours, so there may be 8 to 12 feeds in a 24-hour period.
There are conflicting schools of thought on whether you should introduce a routine to the feeds or feed on demand. You need to find what suits you and your baby best. At first, it's thought best to feed on demand and not limit the baby's time at the breast because this can reduce your milk supply.
How long to continue breastfeeding
Breast milk contains all the nutrients your baby needs for the first six months. After this you can gradually begin to introduce solid food. But you can supplement solid food with breast milk for as long as you want to. When you stop breastfeeding is a personal decision.
However, breastfeeding for any length of time will benefit your baby, so don't worry if you stop producing milk earlier than six months. Stress and fatigue can decrease the amount of milk you produce, although many women find that relaxation can increase the milk supply.
Deciding to breastfeed
Advantages
Benefits for your baby's health include:
• good nutrition - breast milk is the best source of nutrition, containing everything your growing baby needs, and is also easy for your baby to digest
• fewer infections - breast milk contains antibodies that help protect your baby against infections such as ear infections, stomach upsets and pneumonia
• reduced risk of eczema
• reduced risk of asthma
• reduced risk of cot death
• less chance of the baby becoming obese as a child
• some studies have suggested that there might be a link between breastfeeding and IQ (intelligence quotient), but this isn't conclusive and more research is needed
Benefits for your health include:
• less bleeding after the birth - your womb shrinks back to its normal size more quickly
• weight loss - breastfeeding uses up to 500 calories per day, depending on how much your baby is feeding
• reduced risk of breast cancer
• reduced risk of ovarian cancer
Practical advantages of breastfeeding for you and your baby:
• breast milk is the right temperature for the baby
there is no need to worry about cleaning and sterilising bottles and teats
• it's convenient - you can feed your baby anywhere as soon as he or she is hungry
• it's cheap - the only cost is your food and drink
• it helps you form a close bond with your baby and can be a rewarding, relaxing experience for you
• breastfeeding can be up to 98 percent effective as a contraceptive, but only if the baby is under six months, you are fully breastfeeding (with the baby not eating or drinking anything else) and you haven't had a period
Disadvantages
Breastfeeding relies on you to do all the feeding. This makes it difficult to have a break, and some fathers may feel excluded. You can extract (express) breast milk so that your partner can do some feeds from a bottle, or so that you can get a babysitter to do a feed while you go out.
Pain is not a regular part of breastfeeding, but there can be some discomfort to begin with. Your breasts may become engorged at times and your nipples may become sore. Your breasts may leak milk. There are ways to relieve these problems, such as warm baths, massage, nipple creams or shields and breast pads. But some women find these problems make them feel less attractive, which can affect the desire to have sex.
You may feel uncomfortable breastfeeding in public, although it's becoming more acceptable to do so. Often there are mother and baby rooms where you can feed undisturbed.
Health problems
Certain medical problems can make breastfeeding risky for you or your baby. For example, if you have an infection like hepatitis B or HIV there is a very small possibility that you can pass this on to the baby through breastfeeding.
Breastfeeding may be too much of a strain on your body if you have a serious heart or kidney problem. Talk to your GP or health visitor if you think you may have a problem that could affect your decision to breastfeed.
What are the alternatives?
Breastfeeding is not the only option for feeding your baby. You can bottle feed your baby with infant formula, which is designed to be as close to breast milk as possible. It comes as a powder that you make up with boiled water. Cow's milk isn't suitable for newborn babies and shouldn't be used.
Is breastfeeding painful?
Pain should not be part of well-established breastfeeding. It's normal for your nipples to be tender for the first two to four days of breastfeeding but pain, cracking, bleeding or blistering after this means you need to make some adjustment. Sore nipples may be caused by incorrect feeding position.
When the milk first comes in, around three to five days after your baby is born, your breasts may become engorged and tender. This will improve as your breasts get used to making the right amount of milk. Sometimes you can get a blocked milk duct and feel a tender lump in your breast. The treatment is usually warm baths, massage and frequent breastfeeding. Occasionally, an infection (mastitis) develops. Speak to your health visitor or GP if your nipples or breasts are sore.
Your diet while you are breastfeeding
Good nutrition is important for the quality of the milk and for your health. You need to eat well and regularly, and drink plenty. Choose a good variety of foods from the four food groups (wholegrain starchy foods, protein, fruit and vegetables and dairy).
Alcohol
Some alcohol is passed on to the baby through your breast milk, although much less than you drink. The effect it has on the baby depends how much you drink. If you drink large amounts, it can make the baby drowsy or weak, and result in growth problems. It could also affect the amount of milk you produce. If you do want to drink alcohol, it's best to do so occasionally and not in large amounts.
Smoking
Some nicotine is passed on to babies in breast milk. It's best not to smoke. Babies whose parents smoke are also more likely to suffer from asthma and other lung diseases.
Medicines
Some medicines can be passed to babies while breastfeeding. Always check with your doctor or pharmacist which medicines you can safely take while you are breastfeeding.
This factsheet aims to educate women about the different phases of the menstrual cycle so they have a better understanding of how their bodies work and of menstruation generally.
The menstrual cycle consists of a number of bodily changes associated with the development of an egg and the possibility of pregnancy. The cycle starts with the first day of the menstrual period (referred to as day 1) and ends the day before the next period starts. While the length of the menstrual cycle is often 28 days, menstrual cycles can vary anywhere from 20 days to 40 days. Cycles longer than six weeks are considered unusual.
The length of a woman’s menstrual cycle may change through different life stages. Irregularities are common during adolescence and in the time approaching menopause. Psychological factors such as stress and emotional distress, changes in weight, excessive physical activity and travelling can also cause irregularities in a woman’s menstrual cycle.
Phases of the cycle
There are four distinct phases of the menstrual cycle: menstruation, follicular phase, ovulation and the luteal phase. In order to properly understand menstruation it is necessary to first explain the other phases.
Follicular phase
The follicular phase is the time from the first day of menstruation to ovulation. During this phase the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is released by the pituitary gland. FSH causes between 10 and 20 follicles to begin developing in the ovary. The developing follicles produce the female hormone oestrogen which causes the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to become thick in preparation for the possible embedding of a fertilised egg (1). Usually only one of these follicles will mature to become the egg (ovum), with the others degenerating. The follicular phase can vary considerably in length, depending on the time of ovulation.
Ovulation
The rise in oestrogen during the follicular phase leads to the secretion of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). This in turn increases the pituitary gland’s production of both the luteinising hormone (LH) and FSH. The abrupt rise in the LH triggers ovulation, which is the release of the egg from the ovary. Following ovulation the egg is swept into the fallopian tube and moved along towards the uterus. If fertilisation does not occur the egg will disintegrate over the next 6 to 24 hours.
Luteal phase
This phase is the time from ovulation to the beginning of menstruation. During this phase the remnants of the follicle from which the egg was released become the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of the hormone progesterone and some oestrogen. These hormones contribute to the further thickening and maintenance of the lining of the uterus. If fertilisation does not occur the corpus luteum begins to degenerate and progesterone levels decline leading to the disintegration of the lining.
Women may experience other bodily changes during this phase, including tender or lumpy breasts, fluid retention and bloating. Mood swings, tiredness and feelings of anxiety, anger and sadness can also be common at this time.
Menstruation
Menstruation occurs when the broken down lining of the uterus flows out through the vagina.
Phases of the menstrual cycle
Facts about ovulation
There are several bodily changes that signal the occurrence of ovulation, including differences in cervical mucus and in the position and opening of the cervix.
Cervical mucus and position
Throughout a woman’s cycle the cervix produces mucus, which varies considerably in consistency. Prior to ovulation the cervical mucus becomes clear and slippery, resembling the consistency of raw egg white. The mucus is also very elastic and can be stretched into a string between two fingers. When this type of mucus is present a woman is considered fertile (it is often referred to as ‘fertile mucus’). The texture of the fertile mucus assists and nourishes the sperm as they travel up the vagina towards the opening of the cervix.
When a woman is in a non-fertile phase of her cycle the cervical mucus differs in colour and texture. It may be sticky, crumbly, gummy, creamy (like lotion) and white, milky or yellow in colour (2). This mucus cannot be stretched between the fingers and may have a ‘sour’ smell. It is important to note that secretions related to sexual arousal, semen, lubricants, spermicides, vaginal infections (eg. thrush), and certain medications can all interfere with the appearance of cervical mucus.
The positioning of the cervix and its opening also change throughout a woman’s cycle. Around ovulation the cervix moves into a higher position and the opening, or os, widens. Some women may also experience aches or pain around the time of ovulation. This pain can vary from cramps or a general ache in the abdomen to sharp pains in one side. Spotting (light bleeding) can also occur at the time of ovulation.
Time of ovulation
Women often believe that ovulation occurs midcycle. It actually occurs 12-16 days before the next period. So although a woman with a 28 day cycle may ovulate midcycle (between day 12 and day 16), a woman with a 36 day cycle will ovulate between day 20 and day 24. An easy way to approximate the time of ovulation for women with regular cycles is to subtract 16 from the number of days in the cycle and then add 4. This will calculate the span of days in which ovulation is most likely to occur. For instance, a woman with a 22 day cycle is most likely to ovulate between days 6 and 10 of her cycle (22-16 = 6 (+4 =10).
Ovulation and conception
Following ovulation, the egg’s life span can be up to 24 hours, but is usually between 6 and 12 hours (3). In contrast, the sperm generally survive for 3 days, but can live for up to 5 days if optimal fertile cervical mucus is present (4). Therefore, pregnancy is possible 3 to 5 days before ovulation and in the 24 hours following ovulation.
By learning the various signs of ovulation women can calculate their fertile and non-fertile days for contraceptive purposes or to optimise the chances of pregnancy. Women interested in charting their cycle should consult someone experienced in the area of fertility awareness and natural family planning. Women under 35 who are experiencing difficulty in conceiving should consult their doctor after 12 months of trying. This time is reduced to 6 months for those 35 and over.
Facts about menstruation
The menstrual flow
The average length of menstruation can vary from 3 to 7 days but for some women it may be shorter or longer. The length can also differ from one menstrual cycle to the next. Menstrual fluid is actually made up of several components other than blood including endometrial cells, cervical mucus and vaginal secretions (5). The amount of menstrual fluid lost also differs between individuals but generally, a woman loses between 50-100ml of fluid (6).
A woman’s menstrual flow may be heaviest or lightest at the beginning of menstruation or may be intermittent throughout. The colour of the menstrual fluid can range between black, brown, dark red, bright red and pink. Menstrual fluid only tends to emit an unpleasant odour when it has been in contact with the air for a period of time.
Age of first and last period
The average age of menarche (first period) is considered to be between the ages of 11 and 14. Menarche usually occurs a year or two following other puberty related changes like breast development and pubic and underarm hair growth.
Research suggests that the average age of menarche has fallen over the last century, due to a number of factors including improved diet, better health care and possibly the increase in oestrogen-like substances in the environment (eg. pesticides, plastics) (7). It is recommended that if a young woman has not started menstruating by the time she is 16 she should consult a doctor to ensure that she does not have a medical condition that is preventing menstruation from occurring (8).
When young women first start menstruating they are often anovulatory (not ovulating) and, therefore, not fertile. Menstruation without ovulation is quite common in the first few cycles of menstruation and can also occur during other life stages such as before menopause. Even though there may be an uncertainty as to whether ovulation has occurred at particular times in life, contraception still needs to be used if one wants to avoid the chance of pregnancy.
Menopause, the cessation of menstruation, typically occurs in the late 40s or early 50s. In the time leading up to the menopause the menstrual cycle and/or flow may change, becoming lighter, heavier or longer. While irregular bleeding is also common at this time, it can be a symptom of gynaecological cancer so women experiencing this should consult their doctor.
Sex and menstruation
Some women avoid sexual contact during menstruation for a number of reasons. They may have religious or cultural beliefs that prevent it or they may feel that their menstrual flow is unpleasant or that their partner will be unwilling. However, apart from religious, cultural, and personal beliefs there are few reasons why women should not have sex during menstruation. One consideration is that the risk of transmitting a blood borne infection (like Hep C and HIV) is higher when having unprotected sex at this time.
The Pill and menstruation
A woman who is on the oral contraceptive pill does not ovulate and therefore, will not experience the same cervical mucus changes or have any ovulation pain. Their ‘period’ is not a natural menstruation but more correctly referred to as a withdrawal bleed. A withdrawal bleed occurs when the synthetic hormones are stopped (during the seven days of inactive, sugar pills).
Women taking the Pill can manipulate its use in order to miss or delay a withdrawal bleed so it does not interfere with travel plans, special occasions etc. Women who experience health problems like endometriosis, menstrual migraine and heavy bleeding may routinely use the Pill to reduce the number of withdrawal bleeds they have a year (and, therefore, the number of times they experience symptoms).
If a woman is taking a monophasic pill (a pill that has the same dosage throughout the cycle) she can miss or delay a withdrawal bleed by simply going straight on to the next pill packet, missing the inactive pills. However, women on a triphasic pill (a pill that has different dosages) may experience spotting if they follow the same procedure due to the change in hormone levels at the start and end of the pill packet. Women on triphasic pills are, therefore, advised to discuss how to miss a withdrawal bleed with their doctor.
Women on the Pill may sometimes experience break-through bleeding, particularly in the first few months of commencing the Pill or with a triphasic pill. If a woman has not missed taking any active pills and has a break-through bleed she is still covered contraceptively. She should, however, consult her doctor to review the choice of Pill and to ensure the bleeding is not related to another condition (see ‘Bleeding between periods’ section).
Return of menstruation after childbirth
The length of time before a woman’s periods return following pregnancy is largely influenced by whether she is breastfeeding or not. The hormone that stimulates milk production, prolactin, also inhibits ovulation and the return of menstruation. Therefore, women who are fully breastfeeding may not menstruate for months or until breastfeeding ends. The return of menstruation in breast feeding mothers depends upon the frequency and duration of breast feeds a day. It is important to note that women will ovulate and, therefore, be fertile before the return of their first period following delivery/breast feeding.
Sanitary protection
Pads
Sanitary pads are made from highly absorbent materials and come in various thicknesses to suit light, medium and heavy flows. Pads generally need to be changed every three to four hours and should be disposed of in a bin or specialised receptacle. They cannot be flushed down the toilet as they will block the plumbing.
Tampons
Tampons are made from compressed cotton and/or cellulose and come in various sizes to suit different menstrual flows. Tampons are preferred by many women because of their smaller and more convenient size and because they are comfortable to wear. Tampons also allow women to go swimming and to wear clothes that are close fitting.
Despite their convenience some women have reservations about using tampons. For instance, some women worry that a tampon will get ‘lost’. This is actually not possible as the entrance from the cervix to the uterus, the cervical opening or os, is so small that a tampon cannot enter it. Tampons do occasionally become ‘stuck’ in the vagina. If this happens, adopting a squatting position or sitting in a warm bath can assist in removing the tampon.
Young women (and parents of young women) also ask whether tampons can be used by virgins. The answer is ‘yes’ because tampons do not break the hymen as it already has a small gap in it which allows the menstrual fluid to flow out. In addition, the hymen is often no longer intact anyway due to normal physical activity. To make insertion easier, first time tampon users may wish to try a mini tampon, use a lubricant such as KY jelly or saliva or use a tampon applicator (available for sale with some tampon brands). If a tampon has been placed correctly a woman should not be able to feel it.
Tampons need to be changed every three to four hours. Parents of girls who are new to using tampons may wish to remind their daughters about changing their tampon regularly. Women should choose a tampon absorbency that suits their menstrual flow (eg. light tampon when flow is light and regular/super tampon when flow is heavier). Tampons should be disposed of in the same way as pads. It is recommended that pads are used overnight as tampons may dry out the vagina and, therefore, increase the risk of toxic shock syndrome.
Toxic shock syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome is a rare illness caused by the toxins released by the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus. It is believed that not changing a tampon for a long time can cause staphylococcal bacteria to rapidly multiply, releasing toxins into the bloodstream. Symptoms include a sudden high fever, a rash similar to sunburn, vomiting, watery diarrhoea, muscular pain and headache (9). Choosing the lowest absorbency tampon necessary, washing hands thoroughly before and after inserting a tampon and changing tampons at least every three to fours hours, can minimise the already low risk of TSS.
Menstrual problems
There are a range of problems that women may experience with their menstrual cycle. Some of the most commonly reported menstrual disorders are amenorrhoea (absence of periods), dysmenorrhoea (painful menstruation), menorrhagia (heavy bleeding), bleeding between periods and premenstrual syndrome.
Amenorrhoea (absence of periods)
Amenorrhoea, (outside of pregnancy), usually occurs as a result of a hormonal disturbance. These disturbances can be caused by a wide range of factors including weight gain or loss, over-exercising, emotional upsets (both good and bad), anxiety or stress, travel, dietary changes and conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (10). Quite often amenorrhoea is only temporary, with periods returning in time. Women experiencing amenorrhoea for longer than six months should consult a doctor.
Dysmenorrhoea (painful menstruation)
While some women experience only mild discomfort during menstruation, other women suffer from severe, incapacitating pain. Period pain is more common in adolescents and women in their 20s, but can also occur in older women. Women may get pain a few days before their period or during the first few days of bleeding. Period pain can consist of a cramping-type pain, caused by the contraction of the uterine muscles, or a heavy dragging pain in the pelvic region. Pain in the legs and back, headaches, nausea and diarrhoea are also common. Popular remedies for mild pain include analgesics (painkillers), antiprostaglandins (eg. Nurofen, Ponstan), herbal medicines, warm baths, heat packs, gentle exercise and rest. Treatment for more severe period pain includes the use of antiprostaglandins and oral contraceptives. To be effective at treating pelvic pain, antiprostaglandins need to be taken before the pain starts. Therefore, women should aim to take them the day before their period is expected. If women do not find relief with these treatments they should consult their doctor. A woman may have endometriosis, a condition in the tissue which lines the uterus grows in other parts of the body outside the uterus. For more information on endometriosis see our Endometriosis factsheet.
Menorrhagia (heavy bleeding)
Because it is hard to accurately measure the amount of menstrual fluid loss, defining an amount that constitutes heavy bleeding can be difficult. The degree to which menstruation interferes with everyday functioning can provide a useful guide. Heavy bleeding can be caused by a number of factors including hormonal imbalances, fibroids, polyps or endometriosis. The excessive amounts of blood lost can lead to a woman becoming anaemic. Treatment may include oral contraceptives and other hormonal drugs, the destruction of the endometrium using a variety of methods, or the use of the intra-uterine system (IUS), Mirena.
Bleeding between periods
Bleeding between periods or spotting can be a symptom of a number of conditions including sexually transmitted infections, gynaecological cancer, endometriosis, fibroids or a thyroid disorder. It can also be a side effect of some contraceptives or medications (see 'The Pill and menstruation’ section). If a woman experiences bleeding between periods she should consult her doctor.
Premenstrual syndrome
Premenstrual syndrome refers to a collection of symptoms that some women experience before each period (11). Symptoms include physical responses like bloating, headaches, tiredness and food cravings and psychological responses like irritability, anger, depression and lowered self-esteem. Women who suffer from premenstrual syndrome find exercise, dietary changes, yoga, relaxation techniques and herbal remedies are helpful in relieving symptoms.
About Blood:
This red liquid carries oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body, and carries carbon dioxide and other waste products back to the lungs, kidneys and liver for disposal. It fights against infection and helps heal wounds, so we can stay healthy.
There's no substitute for blood. If people lose blood from surgery or injury or if their bodies can't produce enough, there is only one place to turn -- volunteer blood donors.
Blood History
In 1898, it was discovered that inherited differences in people's red cells were the cause of many of the incompatibilities seen with transfusions. Four blood types were identified. During World War I, when human blood was needed for transfusions for wounded soldiers, studies of how to preserve and transport blood began.
Not until World War II, however, did the development of effective preservative solutions make blood transfusions widely and safely available. There have been many advances since then, including the discovery of additional types of blood such as the Rh positive and Rh negative classifications.
Today, thanks to these advances, full utilization is made of nearly every blood donation. Elements of blood can be separated by centrifuge. Plasma can be preserved by freezing. Each blood element can be used to treat different diseases.
Blood is now tested for diseases it may carry, and any blood testing positive for a disease is destroyed.
Millions of times each year in the United States, human blood is required to save the lives of people suffering from accidents and disease. There is no way to manufacture human blood outside the body. That is why the Blood Bank of Hawaii plays such a vital role in the healthcare of the our region.
About Blood Types
All blood donors are important, but if you are type O or AB, you are special because type O negative red blood cells and type AB plasma can be transfused to any patient. Your donations are VITAL - please donate as often as you can, every 56 days for red blood cells.
Having blood immediately available when it is needed may help save many lives.
Blood Type------------------ RH How Many People Have It?
O Positive ------------------- 40 out 100
O Negative ------------------- 7 out of 100
A Positive ------------------- 34 out of 100
A Negative ------------------- 6 out of 100
B Positive ------------------- 8 out of 100
B Negative ------------------- 1 out of 100
AB Positive ------------------- 3 out of 100
AB Negative ------------------- 1 out 200
You Can Receive This Type of Red Blood Cells
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
You Can Receive This Type of Plasma
| If you are this blood type. | | O- | O+ | B- | B+ | A- | A+ | | |
| | | | | | | | X | X | |
| | | | | | | | X | X | |
| A+ | | | | | X | X | X | X | |
| A- | | | | | X | X | X | X | |
| B+ | | | X | X | | | X | X | |
| B- | | | X | X | | | X | X | |
| O+ | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |
| O- | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |
| X | Routine Transfusion Compatibility | ||||||||
Does your blood type reveal your personality?
According to a Japanese institute that does research on blood types, there are certain personality traits that seem to match up with certain blood types. How do you rate?
Type O : You want to be a leader, and when you see something you want, you keep striving until you achieve your goal. You are a trend-setter, loyal, passionate, and self-confident. Your weaknesses include vanity and jealously and a tendency to be too competitive.
Type A : You like harmony, peace and organization. You work well with others, and are sensitive, patient and affectionate. Among your weaknesses are stubbornness and an inability to relax.
Type B : You're a rugged individualist, who's straight forward and like to do things your own way. Creative and flexible, you adapt easily to any situation. But your insistence on being independent can sometimes go too far and become a weakness.
Type AB : Cool and controlled, you're generally well liked and always put people at ease. You're a natural entertainer who's tactful and fair. But you're standoffish, blunt, and have difficulty making decisions.